Polynorbornene-based polycations

ABSTRACT

A multiblock, cationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer is formed by a process including performing a vinyl addition polymerization in the presence of a metal catalyst of a first norbornene monomer substituted with a first alkyl group and a second norbornene monomer substituted with a second alkyl group by adding a predetermined amount of the first norbornene monomer and a predetermined amount of the second norbornene monomer sequentially to the reaction to form blocks of an intermediate norbornene multiblock copolymer. The second alkyl group includes a substituent which undergoes a reaction with a precursor for a cationic group having a volume less than 0.25 cm3/mol. The process further includes reacting the precursor for the cationic group with the intermediate norbornene multiblock copolymer to form the multiblock, cationic-functionalized norborene copolymer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional patent application of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 17/243,877, filed Apr. 29, 2021, which claimsbenefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 63/017,438,filed Apr. 29, 2020, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein byreference.

GOVERNMENTAL INTEREST

This invention was made with government support under grant no.DESC0019445 awarded by the Department of Energy (subaward grant no.859891116315). The U.S. Goverment has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND

The following information is provided to assist the reader inunderstanding technologies disclosed below and the environment in whichsuch technologies may typically be used. The terms used herein are notintended to be limited to any particular narrow interpretation unlessclearly stated otherwise in this document. References set forth hereinmay facilitate understanding of the technologies or the backgroundthereof. The disclosure of all references cited herein are incorporatedby reference.

Ion-exchange membranes are critical components in electrochemical cells,as they facilitate ion flux between the electrocatalysts. In the lastdecade, there has been rising interest in membranes which promote theflow of OH⁻ anions, as these materials can be used in alkaline fuelcells and electrolyzers. Anion-exchange membranes (AEMs) typically areformed from polymers with covalently tethered cationic groups. Theirmechanical integrity is governed by the polymer backbone and the ionmovement is determined by the cationic side chains.

Achieving high OH conductivity (that is, >80-100 mS/cm) in AEMs oftenrequires relatively large concentrations of cationic groups appended tothe polymer, especially compared to the number of charged groups inproton-exchange membranes (PEMs). This difference can be partiallyattributed to the lower mobility of OH in comparison with H⁺ in aqueoussystems. The increased ion-content in AEMs, which is required to improveperformance, has an impact on swelling and mechanical integrity.

Recent studies have demonstrated that crosslink density can be used tocontrol water uptake and conductivity in vinyl addition polynorbornenes.In that regard, a trimethylammonium-based tetrablock copolymer wasprepared in such studies. Light crosslinking was indicated to produce amaterial with high ion conductivity (˜200 mS/cm at 80° C.) in an AEM.

Development of fuel cells has generated a lot of attention recently as aresult of increased demands for efficient and clean electricitygeneration. In particular, AEMs offer a promising solution for currentdemands. Nonetheless, a continuing need exists for making more efficientand longer lasting AEM for fuel cells (for use, for example, invehicles, including large vehicles such as trains, buses, etc.) and forother uses.

SUMMARY

In one aspect a statistical, cationic-functionalized norbornenecopolymer is formed by a process including performing a vinyl additionpolymerization in the presence of a metal catalyst of a first norbornenemonomer substituted with a first alkyl group and at least a secondnorbornene monomer substituted with a second alkyl group, to form anintermediate norbornene copolymer. The second alkyl group includes asubstituent which undergoes a reaction (for example, a substitutionreaction) with a precursor of a cationic group. The process furtherincludes adding the precursor for the cationic group to the intermediatenorbornene copolymer to form the cationic-functionalized norborenecopolymer. The cationic group has a volume of 0.25 cm³/mol or greater(for example, a phosphonium group or an imidazolium group). In a numberof embodiments, the first alkyl group is a C1-C20 alkyl group, and thesecond alkyl group is a C1-C20 alkyl group. The vinyl additionpolymerization may be (but is not required to be) a controlled vinyladdition polymerization.

The substituent of the second alkyl group may, for example, be a haloatom, a mesylate group, or tosylate group. As used herein halo atomsrefer to —Cl, —Br or —I. The first alkyl group may, for example, be aC1-C12 alkyl group and the second alkyl group may, for example,independently be a C1-C12 alkyl group.

In a number of embodiments, the intermediate norbornene copolymer has anumber average molecular weight above the entanglement molecular weight.The cationic-functionalized norbomene polymer may, for example, have apolydispersity less than 1.5. In a number of embodiments, thecationic-functionalized norbornene polymer includes no crosslinks. Thecationic functionalized norbomene polymer may, for example, be solutionprocessible.

In another aspect, a method of synthesizing a statistical,cationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer includes performing a vinyladdition polymerization in the presence of a metal catalyst of a firstnorbornene monomer substituted with a first alkyl group and at least asecond norbornene monomer substituted with a second alkyl group to forman intermediate norbornene copolymer. The second alkyl group includes asubstituent which undergoes a reaction (for example, a substitutionreaction) with a precursor of a cationic group. The method furtherincludes adding the precursor for the cationic group to the intermediateborbornene copolymer to form the cationic-functionalized norborenecopolymer. The cationic group has a volume of 0.25 cm³/mol or greater(for example, a phosphonium group or an imidazolium group). The firstalkyl group may, for example, be a C1-C20 alkyl group, and the secondalkyl group may, for example, be a C1-C20 alkyl group. Once again, thevinyl addition polymerization may be (but is not required to be) acontrolled vinyl addition polymerization.

The substituent of the second alkyl group may, for example, be a haloatom, a mesylate group, or tosylate group. As used herein halo atomsrefer to —Cl, —Br or —I. The first alkyl group may, for example, be aC1-C12 alkyl group and the second alkyl group may, for example,independently be a C1-C12 alkyl group.

In a number of embodiments, the intermediate norbornene polymer has anumber average molecular weight above the entanglement molecular weight.The cationic-functionalized norborene polymer may, for example, have apolydispersity less than 1.5. In a number of embodiments, thecationic-functionalized norbornene polymer includes no crosslinks. Thecationic functionalized norbomene polymer may, for example, be solutionprocessible.

In a number of embodiments, the cationic group is a phosphonium groupand the precursor is a phosphazene base. In a number of embodiments, thereaction product of the phosphazene base and the intermediate norborenecopolymer is worked up using potassium hexafluorophosphate and convertedinto a chloride form using an anion-exchange resin.

In a number of embodiments, the cationic group is an imidazolium groupand the precursor is an imidazole. In a number of embodiments, theimidazole is reacted with the intermediate norbomene copolymer viaphase-transfer chemistry and subsequently converted to the imidazoliumvia a nucleophilic substitution.

The method may further include casting a film or membrane of thecationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer from solution.

In another aspect, a multiblock, cationic-functionalized norbornenecopolymer is formed by a process which includes performing a vinyladdition polymerization (which may be a controlled vinyl additionpolymerization) in the presence of a metal catalyst of a firstnorbornene monomer substituted with a first alkyl group and at least asecond norbornene monomer substituted with a second alkyl group byadding a predetermined amount of the first norbornene monomer and apredetermined amount of the second norbornene monomer sequentially tothe reaction to form blocks of an intermediate norborene multiblockcopolymer. The second alkyl group includes a substituent which undergoesa reaction (for example, a substitution reaction) with a precursor for acationic group having a volume less than 0.25 cm³/mol. The processfurther includes reacting the precursor for the cationic group with theintermediate norbornene multiblock copolymer to form the multiblock,cationic-functionalized norborene copolymer. The precursor for thecationic group may, for example, be a precursor for an ammonium cationicgroup such as a tertiary amine precursor for an ammonium cationic group,and the cationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer may be anammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer.

The first alkyl group may be a C1-C20 alkyl group, and the second alkylgroup may be a C1-C20. In a number of embodiments, the first alkyl groupis a C1-C12 alkyl group, and the second alkyl group is a C1-C12 alkylgroup. The multiblock, cation-functionalized norbomene copolymerincludes an odd number of blocks, and a first block and a last block ofthe multiblock, cationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer are formedfrom the first norbornene monomer. The substituent of the second alkylgroup may, for example, be a halo atom, a mesylate group, or tosylategroup.

In a number of embodiments, the intermediate norbornene multiblockcopolymer has a number average molecular weight above the entanglementmolecular weight thereof. The cationic-functionalized norbornenecopolymer may, for example, have a polydispersity less than 1.5 or nogreater than 1.38.

In a number of embodiments, the multiblock, cationic-functionalizednorbornene copolymer includes no crosslinks. In a number of embodiments,the multiblock, cationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer is solutionprocessible.

In another aspect, a method of synthesizing a multiblock,cationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer includes performing a vinyladdition polymerization (which may be a controlled vinyl additionpolymerization) in the presence of a metal catalyst of a firstnorbornene monomer substituted with a first alkyl group and at least asecond norbornene monomer substituted with a second alkyl group byadding a predetermined amount of the first norbornene monomer and apredetermined amount of the second norbornene monomer sequentially tothe reaction to form blocks of an intermediate norborene multiblockcopolymer. The second alkyl group includes a substituent which undergoesa reaction (for example, a substitution reaction) with a precursor forthe cationic group. The method further includes reacting the precursorfor the cationic group with the intermediate norbornene multiblockcopolymer to form the multiblock, cationic-functionalized norborenecopolymer. The precursor for the cationic group may, for example, be aprecursor for an ammonium cationic group such as a tertiary amineprecursor for an ammonium cationic group, and thecationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer may be anammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer.

The first alkyl group may be a C1-C 20 alkyl group, and the second alkylgroup may be a C1-C20. In a number of embodiments, the first alkyl groupis a C1-C12 alkyl group, and the second alkyl group is a C1-C12 alkylgroup. The multiblock, cation-functionalize norbomene copolymer includesan odd number of blocks, and a first block and a last block of themultiblock, cationic-functionalized norbornene copolymer are formed fromthe first norbornene monomer. The substituent of the second alkyl groupmay, for example, be a halo atom, a mesylate group, or tosylate group.

In a number of embodiments, the intermediate norbornene multiblockcopolymer has a number average molecular weight above the entanglementmolecular weight thereof. The cationic-functionalized norbornenecopolymer may, for example, have a polydispersity less than 1.5 or nogreater than 1.38.

In a number of embodiments, the multiblock, cationic-functionalizednorbornene copolymer includes no crosslinks. In a number of embodiments,the multiblock, cationic-functionalized norbomene copolymer is solutionprocessible.

In a number of embodiment, the method further includes casting a film ormembrane of the multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbomene copolymerfrom solution.

In another aspect, a method of synthesis of a tetrakis(dialkylamino)phosphonium compound in a single reaction vessel, includes reactingphosphorus pentachloride with three equivalents of a first amine, whichis a secondary amine, in the presence of an organic base in the reactionvessel and subsequent addition of a second amine, which is a primaryamine or a secondary amine, to the reaction vessel. In a number ofembodiments, the second amine is a primary amine.

In another aspect, a method of designing cation-functionalized olefinicpolymers includes synthesizing a statistical cation-functionalizedolefinic copolymer and one or more multiblock cation-functionalizedolefinic copolymers, wherein the statistical cation-functionalizedolefinic copolymer and the one or more multiblock cation-functionalizedolefinic copolymers have similar ionic contents and similar molecularweights, by performing a controlled vinyl addition polymerization in thepresence of a metal catalyst of a first olefinic monomer substitutedwith a first alkyl group and at least a second olefinic monomersubstituted with a second alkyl group to first from a statisticalintermediate copolymer and one or more of multiblock intermediatecopolymers. The second alkyl group includes a substituent whichundergoes a reaction (for example, a substitution reaction) with aprecursor for a cationic group that has a volume less than 0.25 cm³/mol(for example, an ammonium cationic group). The first alkyl group may bea C1-C20 alkyl group, and the second alkyl group may be a C1-C20. Theprecursor for the cationic group may, for example, be a precursor for anammonium cationic group such as a tertiary amine precursor for anammonium cationic group, and the cationic-functionalized norbornenecopolymer may be an ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer. Thestatistical intermediate copolymer is formed by mixing the firstolefinic monomer and the second olefinic monomer, and the one or moremultiblock intermediate copolymers are formed by adding a predeterminedamount of the first olefinic monomer and a predetermined amount of thesecond olefinic monomer sequentially to form blocks of the intermediatemultiblock copolymer. The method further includes reacting the precursorfor the cationic group with the intermediate statistical copolymer andwith each of the one or more multiblock intermediate copolymers to formthe cation-functionalized olefinic statistical copolymer and the one ormore cation-functionalized multiblock copolymers.

In a number of embodiments, the first olefinic monomer is a firstnorbornene monomer and the second olefinic monomer is a secondnorbornene monomer. The first norbornene monomer may, for example, havethe formula:

wherein R is a C1-C20 alkyl group and the second norbornene monomer may,for example, have the formula:

wherein Ra is a C1-C20 alkylene group and X is a halo atom, a mesylategroup, or a tosylate group.

The cationic-functionalized norbornene polymer may, for example, have amolecular weight above the entanglement molecular weight. Thecation-functionalized norbornene polymer may, for example, have apolydispersity less than 1.5 or not greater than 1.38.

In a number of embodiments, the cation-functionalized norbornene polymerincludes no crosslinks, In a number of embodiments, thecation-functionalized norborene polymer is solution processible. Themethod may, for example, further includes casting a film of thecation-functionalized norborene polymer from solution.

In a further aspect, membrane comprises a statistical,cationic-functionalized (for example, phosphonium-functionalized orimidazolium-functionalize) norbornene copolymer hereof The membrane may,for example, be formed from solution casting of the copolymer.

In still a further aspect, a membrane comprises a multiblock,cationic-functionalized (for example, ammonium-functionalize) norbornenecopolymer hereof. The membrane may, for example, be formed from solutioncasting of the copolymer.

The present devices, systems, methods, and compositions, along with theattributes and attendant advantages thereof, will best be appreciatedand understood in view of the following detailed description taken inconjunction with the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A illustrates a representative embodiment of an overall process ofsynthesizing, film casting, and post polymerization functionalization ofaddition-type olefins/polynorbornenes, wherein the bottom left of thefigure shows the success of post-functionalizing a statisticalbromobutyl norbornene copolymer with ¹H NMR spectroscopy before andafter reaction with trimethylamine.

FIG. 1B illustrates a representative synthetic scheme for synthesizingrepresentative statistical and multiblock copolymers by controlled vinyladdition polymerization for representative comonomers used in studieshereof wherein the copolymer is functionalized with an ammonium ionafter controlled vinyl addition polymerization.

FIG. 1C illustrates a generalized scheme for synthesis of statisticaland multiblock intermediate olefinic/norbornene copolymers hereof viacontrolled vinyl addition polymerization, which may subsequently bereacted with a precursor for a cationic group to formcationic-functionalized norbornene copolymers.

FIG. 1D illustrates Table 1 setting forth characterization ofrepresentative statistical as well as diblock, triblock, tetrablock andpentablock copolymers hereof.

FIG. 2A illustrates a representative multiblock synthesis of additionpolynorbornenes detailing a pentablock copolymer formed from hexylnorborene and bromobutyl norbornene.

FIG. 2B illustrates size exclusion chromatograms (SECs) showing theincrease in molecular weight with every block added to the pentablockcopolymer of FIG. 2A.

FIG. 2C illustrates size exclusion chromatograms for the diblock,triblock, tetrablock and pentablock copolymers described in Table 1 ofFIG. 1D hereof.

FIG. 3 illustrates photographs of the statistical and pentablockcopolymer films after reaction with trimethylamine.

FIG. 4A illustrates hydroxide conductivities for the series ofcopolymers of Table 1 of FIG. 1D measured by electrochemical impedancespectroscopy at 22 and 80° C., wherein conductivity was determined inthe OH⁻ form using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), theerror is the standard deviation over 3 measurements, the theoretical IECfor all copolymers was approximately 1.72 meq/g, and the experimentalIECs were determined by back-titration of the polymer film in thehydroxide form.

FIG. 4B illustrates water uptake studies for the copolymer series ofTable 1 of FIG. 1D wherein water uptake was determined using gravimetricanalysis and hydration values were determined by the equationλ=[1000×WU]/[IEC×18].

FIG. 4C illustrates a graph of the trend of hydroxide conductivitieswith increasing number of blocks for the copolymer series of Table 1 ofFIG. 1D.

FIG. 5 illustrates, in the top panels thereof, small angle X-rayscattering (SAXS) patterns acquired at 22° C. for the multiblock andstatistical copolymer films in pinhole geometry and, in the bottompanels thereof, Cryo-TEM images of the triblock, tetrablock andpentablock copolymers taken at an accelerating voltage of 200 keV.

FIG. 6A illustrates post-polymerization modification of thepolynorbornene copolymers hereof with a tetraaminophosphonium cation.

FIG. 6B illustrates further details of the post-polymerizationmodification of the polynorbornene copolymer with atetraaminophosphonium cation.

FIG. 6C illustrates a graph of water uptake and hydration values fortrimethylammonium and tetraaminophosphonium copolymers hereof, whereinwater uptake was determined using gravimetric analysis and hydrationvalues were determined by the equation λ=[1000×WU]/[IEC×18].

FIG. 6D illustrates a graph of conductivity (σ) for trimethylammoniumand tetraaminophosphonium copolymers at room temperature and at 80° C.,wherein σ was determined in the OH form using electrochemical impedancespectroscopy (EIS) and the error is the standard deviation over 3measurements.

FIG. 7 illustrates a representative synthetic scheme forpost-polymerization modification of the polynorbornene copolymers hereofwith an imidazolium cation wherein an imidazole precursor may beattached using phase-transfer chemistry and converted into theimidazolium via a nucleophilic substitution.

FIG. 8A illustrates representative precursors (top) to be used inpost-polymerization functionalization to yield the correspondingcationic moieties (bottom) tethered to addition polynorbornene backboneof representative copolymers hereof by way of SN2 reaction.

FIG. 8B illustrates an embodiment of a one-pot or single-reaction-vesselsynthesis of tetrakis(dialkylamino) phosphonium cations.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

It will be readily understood that the components of the embodiments, asgenerally described and illustrated in the figures herein, may bearranged and designed in a wide variety of different configurations inaddition to the described representative embodiments. Thus, thefollowing more detailed description of the representative embodiments,as illustrated in the figures, is not intended to limit the scope of theembodiments, as claimed, but is merely illustrative of representativeembodiments.

Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “anembodiment” (or the like) means that a particular feature, structure, orcharacteristic described in connection with the embodiment is includedin at least one embodiment. Thus, the appearance of the phrases “in oneembodiment” or “in an embodiment” or the like in various placesthroughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to thesame embodiment.

Furthermore, described features, structures, or characteristics may becombined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. In thefollowing description, numerous specific details are provided to give athorough understanding of embodiments. One skilled in the relevant artwill recognize, however, that the various embodiments can be practicedwithout one or more of the specific details, or with other methods,components, materials, et cetera. In other instances, well knownstructures, materials, or operations are not shown or described indetail to avoid obfuscation.

As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a” “an”,and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictatesotherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a monomer” includes aplurality of such monomers and equivalents thereof known to thoseskilled in the art, and so forth, and reference to “the monomer” is areference to one or more such monomers and equivalents thereof known tothose skilled in the art, and so forth. Recitation of ranges of valuesherein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referringindividually to each separate value falling within the range. Unlessotherwise indicated herein, and each separate value, as well asintermediate ranges, are incorporated into the specification as ifindividually recited herein. All methods described herein can beperformed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein orotherwise clearly contraindicated by the text.

The term “polymer” or the prefix “poly” (when referring to a particulartype of polymer) refers generally to a molecule, the structure of whichincludes repeat units derived, actually or conceptually, from moleculesof low relative molecular mass (monomers). The term “copolymer” refersto a polymer including two or more dissimilar repeat units (includingterpolymers—comprising three dissimilar repeat units—etc.). The term“block copolymer” as used herein refers to a copolymer includingmolecules in which there is a linear arrangement of blocks, wherein ablock is a portion of a polymer molecule in which the repeat/monomericunits have at least one constitutional or configurational feature absentfrom the adjacent portions. A block copolymer may, for example, be acopolymer formed when two monomers are clustered together to form“blocks” of repeat units (for example, a copolymer formed from monomersX and Y such as -XXXXX-YYYYY-XXXXX-YYYYY-XXXXX, wherein -XXXXX- and-YYYYY- are the blocks).

Block copolymers have been explored in AEMs to promote nanophaseseparation and transport, but each individual study is often focused ononly a single architecture. Cationic multiblock copolymers have alsobeen investigated previously, but the step-growth mechanism used toconstruct these chains used in previous studies does not enable precisecontrol over the number of block segments in the final polymer. Thus,there is a need to further determine the specific role of architecturein performance of block copolymers, including polynorbornenes and otherpolymers, in determined functionality in AEMs and/or other uses thereof.For example, the balance required between cation content and wateruptake in AEM provides an opportunity to improve AEM materials throughrational design.

In a number of representative embodiments hereof, sequential buildup ofrepresentative cation functionalized (for example,trimethylammonium-functionalized) polynorbornene copolymers wereinvestigated (for example, diblock to pentablock), and the propertieswere juxtaposed with an analogous statistical copolymer. Controlled orliving vinyl addition polymerization of norbornenes was used to controlthe number of blocks and ionic groups in the final polymer.

The polynorborene copolymers, which were prepared with near identicalion-exchange capacities (IECs), revealed a number of important features.In the case of ammonium-functionalized norbornene polymers, blockcopolymers were more conductive as compared to statistical copolymers.In the case of cations of relatively small volume (that is, thosecations having a volume less than 0.25 cm³/mol) such as ammoniumcations, conductivity and swelling can be tuned simply by choice ofmultiblock, and water uptake is dependent on whether ionic segments actas peripheral or internal blocks within the polymer chain. Withoutlimitation to any mechanism, in the case of cation of relatively largevolume (that is, those cations having a volume of at least 0.25 cm³/mol,such as phosphonium cations and imidazolium cations), an increase in thenumber of H₂O molecules solvating the cation results in a bettercombination of conductivity and swelling in statistical copolymers.Although, the polymer membranes hereof are discussed in the context ofuse as AEMs for fuel cells and electrolyzers, the polymers hereof may beused in other technologies such as in membranes for water purification.

The word “control” and/or “controlled” as used herein means that if thepolymerization process conditions are selected so that the contributionsof the chain breaking processes are insignificant compared to chainpropagation, then synthesis of polymers with predetermined molecularweights, low polydispersity and site specific functionalities become areality. A controlled polymerization process displays the followingfeatures: 1. First-order Kinetic Behavior; 2. Pre-determinable Degree ofPolymerization; 3. Designed (Usually) Narrow Molecular WeightDistribution; and 4. Long-lived Polymer Chain with Preserved EndFunctionalities. Controlled vinyl addition polymerization is, forexample, discussed in Kim, D, et al., “Living Vinyl AdditionPolymerization of Substituted Norbornenes by a t-Bu₃P-LigatedMethylpalladium Complex”, ACS Macro Lett., 4, 3, 327 (2015), thedisclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. In general, itis desirable that monomer purities in the polymerizations hereof be 99%or greater.

A number of representative studies hereof include the copolymerizationof 2-alkyl and 2-haloalkyl functionalized norbornenes (Bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-2-enes) and their post-functionalization with cationic moietiesfor use in alkaline exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs). Thesepolymers can be synthesized by metal-catalyzed cationic additionpolymerization to yield a rigid bicyclic backbone with the pendantsubstituents attached to provide processability in commercial solventsand a handle for further functionalization. One of the hallmarks of thispolymerization is that it displays living or controlled behavior. Thepolymerization results in polymer molecular weight that can becontrolled by the monomer-to-catalyst ratio with narrow molecular weightdistributions. In a number of embodiments, the dispersity (M_(w)/M_(n))is less than 1.5. In a number of such embodiment, the dispersity is inthe range of 1.1 to L.5. This attribute warrants the use ofmetal-catalyzed vinyl addition polymerization in the synthesis of blockcopolymers to provide sequential addition of two (or more) differentmonomers to form one polymer chain containing ‘blocks’ of differentmolecular identities. The synthetic methodologies hereof provide theability to synthesize both statistical and multiblock poly(norbornene)sthat are: 1) easily functionalized from an array of precursors to formpolycations; 2) high molecular weight; 3) well suited for forming films;4) solution processible; and 5) high-performance anion/hydroxideconductors. Specific attention can be paid to the change in hydroxideconductivity with the number of blocks in the multiblock architecture.

FIG. 1A outlines an embodiment of a process hereof for synthesizing arepresentative statistical norborene copolymer and creating a film ormembrane to be used in, for example, hydroxide transport. Oncesynthesized by, for example, palladium-catalyzed vinyl additionpolymerization, these polymers may be solvent-cast into robust,free-standing films which can then undergo functionalization bysubmerging into a solution of a precursor to form thecationic-functionalized polymer film. The cationic-functionalize polymerfilm is further used for the measurement of hydroxide conductivity.Success of the procedure is shown in ¹H NMR of the film before and afterimmersion in a trimethylamine solution in which the protons adjacent tothe bromide (3.4 ppm) shift and a larger peak emerges (3.2 ppm) due tothe presence of the ammonium functionality. This process is modular, asseveral precursors may be used to yield cationic polymers on the samepolymer backbone, utilizing SN2 chemistry on the polymer, which enablesdirect comparison of functional group performance in, for example,AEMFCs. Representative classes of cations (and precursors) suitable foruse herein including ammonium, phosphonium, and imidazolium cations areillustrated in FIG. 8A, which is discussed further below.

Vinyl addition polynorbomenes provide an archetypal polyolefin platformto use in the studies hereof since they possess high thermal stability,high glass transition temperatures, good optical transparency, and theyare excellent film formers. Substituted norbornenes can be polymerizedin a controlled fashion using, for example, tBu₃PPd(Me)Cl as a catalystand using sodium tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate (BArF)(see FIGS. 1A through 1C) as an activator. In general, palladiumphosphine catalysts with a halide ligand are suitable for use in anumber of embodiments of the controlled vinyl-addition polymerizationshereof. The halide can be abstracted using sodiumtetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate or other activators suchas silver hexafluoroantimonate or lithiumtetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate ethyl etherate. The synthetic methodhereof results in well-defined polymers with good control over molecularweight and molecular weight distribution. Hexyl norbornene (hNB) andbromobutylnorbornene (BrBuNB) were employed as two representativeolefinic comonomers to assure good film forming properties of theresulting polymers.

As mentioned above, the addition polymerization of polynorbornene usedherein is controlled and can therefore produce block copolymers. Animportant component of embodiments hereof is the ability to synthesizemultiblock polymer architectures in a controlled manner such that themultiblock polymers have similar ionic incorporations and molecularweights to compare properties such as hydroxide conductivities. FIG. 1Billustrates a representative synthetic scheme for synthesizingrepresentative statistical and multiblock copolymers by vinyl additionpolymerization. FIG. 1C illustrates a generalized synthetic scheme forsynthesizing representative statistical and multiblock intermediatecopolymers hereof by vinyl addition polymerization which may be reactedwith precursors for cationic groups to form cationic-functionalizednorbornene copolymers. R and Ra in, FIG. 1C, are C1-C20 alkyl group(and, more typically, C1-C12) alkyl groups. Such alkyl groups can belinear, branched and/or cyclic alkyl groups. FIG. 1D illustrates Table 1setting forth characterization of representative statistical as well asdiblock, triblock, tetrablock and pentablock ammonium-functionalizedcopolymers hereof.

Achieving sufficiently high molecular weight (measured relative topolystyrene standards) is important in the preparation of flexiblefree-standing films from hNB. As such, all materials synthesized in thiswork were well above the predicted chain entanglement molecular weightfor the homopolymer poly(5-n-hexylnorbornene (Table 1, Entries 1-5).See, Muller, K et al., “Synthesis and Rheological Properties ofPoly(5-n-hexylnorbornene),” Macromol. Chem. Phys. 2006, 207, 193-200.Molecular weight of the statistical and block copolymers hereof wasdetermined using size-exclusion chromatography (gel permeationchromatography) relative to polystyrene standards in tetrahydrofuran.The molecular weight characterization was completed for the intermediatecopolymer (that is, prior to the addition of the cationic groups). Ingeneral, the relatively high molecular weights of thecationic-functionalized copolymers hereof may eliminate the need tocrosslink the polymer chains hereof in a number of embodiments. However,the polymer chains of the cationic-functionalized copolymers hereof maybe crosslinked. As set forth above, light crosslinking is has been shownto reduce water uptake in cationic-functionalized copolymers (forexample, using 2.5 to 20% of a crosslinking agent such asN,N,N,N-tetramethyl-1,6-hexanediamine (TMHDA) or another crosslinkingagent). See, for example, Mandal, M .; Huang. G .; Kohl, P. A., AnionicMultiblock Copolymer Membrane Based on Vinyl Addition Polymerization ofNorbornenes: Applications in Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. J.Membrane Sci. 2019, 570-571, 394-402; and Mandal, M .; Huang, G .; Kohl,P. A., Highly Conductive Anion-Exchange Membranes Based on Cross-LinkedPoly(norborene): Vinyl Addition Polymerization. ACS Appl. Energy Mater.2019, 2, 2447-2457.

Copolymerization of hNB:BrBuNB (2:1) was carried out with the same molarratios in all instances, to afford copolymers with near identicalcontent of the bromo functional group. This ensured that each polymerwould have the same theoretical ion-exchange capacity (IEC) uponsubstitution with, for example, trimethylamine. The incorporation ofBrBuNB was verified by integration of the methylene bromide signal (3.4ppm) relative to the methyl group of the hexyl chain (0.9 ppm) in the ¹HNMR spectrum of the synthesized polymers. This value was typicallywithin approximately 3-5% of the expected value based on stoichiometryof the two initial monomer feeds.

Two variations of polymerization were carried out as illustrated in thesynthetic schemes of FIGS. 1B and 1C. For the statistical copolymer,both monomers (hNB and BrBuNB) were combined directly with the activatedcatalyst solution. For the multiblock polymers, monomers were fed intothe reaction sequentially, alternating between hNB (A block) and BuBrNB(B block). In that regard, monomer A is added first and consumed fully.Then monomer B is added etc. until the desired number of blocks areachieved. Monomer consumption was monitored using ¹H NMR spectroscopyfor each chain extension. GPC analysis was used to ensure that thepolymer chain lengths increased as expected after each monomer feed (seeFIG. 2B and 2C. Good yield (70-85%) of the final materials was obtainedin all cases. FIG. 2A shows the representative example of synthesizing apentablock copolymer from 2-hexyl norbornene and 2-bromobutyl norborene.FIG. 2B illustrates size exclusion chromatograms (SECs) via GPC showingthe increase in molecular weight with every block added to thepentablock copolymer of FIG. 2A. FIG. 2C illustrates size exclusionchromatograms for each of the diblock, triblock, tetrablock andpentablock copolymers described in Table 1 of FIG. 1C hereof. Increasingthe number of blocks decreased the molecular weight of each individualblock, as catalyst concentrations were held constant for eachexperiment. A high molecular weight shoulder was observed in somechromatograms, along with tailing in the low molecular region, butneither of these features caused issues with the chain extension.

The copolymers of hNB and BrBuNB were soluble in conventional organicsolvents, and free-standing films or membranes were obtained by solutioncasting from CHCl₃ (see FIG. 3 ). The reaction of NMe₃ with the alkylbromide side chains was achieved by soaking polymer films in a 28% (w/v)solution of aqueous NMe: at room temperature for 48 h. The resultanttrimethyl ammonium polymers (Br⁻ form) were soluble in 1:1 CHCl₃CH₃OH,and H NMR spectroscopy was used to confirm the loss of the —CH₂—Brsignal (3.4 ppm) and the appearance of the N—CH₃ signal at 3.00 ppm. Thesolution processability of these films is advantageous astetraalkylammonium polymers are oftentimes completely insoluble anddifficult to characterize. In addition, the films were transparent andcould be mechanically deformed without any loss of integrity (see FIG. 3).

Once synthesized, functionalized, and converted to the hydroxide form,the films underwent hydroxide conductivity measurements via a four-pointprobe apparatus as known in the art. FIGS. 4A and 4C shows the resultingconductivity of the trimethylammonium functionalized multiblockcopolymer series of Table 1. The results demonstrate a trend that isdependent on the total number of blocks in the multiblock copolymer. Inthat regard, with increasing number of blocks, the hydroxideconductivity is increased while maintaining the same ratio of ionicblock to insulating block throughout the series. The results indicatethat with one composition of polymer, the hydroxide conductivityincreases significantly when increasing from diblock to pentablockarchitectures. No other relevant literature has explicitly detailed thiseffect of increasing number of blocks in addition poly(norborene)s. Anincrease in conductivity is noted for the block copolymers as comparedto the statistical copolymer (FIG. 3 —Right). The conductivity of theStat-NMe₃ at 80° C. is 61±2 whereas for the diblock-NMe₃ the value is79±3. The pentablock-NMe₃ was the most conductive copolymer in theseries, with a σ=98±2 at 80° C.

Water uptake for the different copolymers ranged from 30-85% for theseries (see FIG. 4B). Another trend was observed wherein copolymers withan odd number of blocks had lower water uptakes than copolymers with aneven number of blocks. The diblock and tetrablock copolymers have ionicsegments flanking one end of the polymer chain which likely leads toincreased interchain ionic interactions, and higher water uptakes. Bycontrast, and without limitation to any mechanism, the lower uptakes inthe triblock and pentablock are believed to be a function of theinsulating chains at the periphery, which limits swelling. This resultindicates ionic chains are best flanked by insulating blocks, to controlwater uptake in phase separated block copolymers. In other words, tolimit water uptake, it is desirable to have an odd number of blockswherein the first and last blocks (or the outer, flanking blocks) areinsulating (non-ionic) blocks. The hydration number trends upward in asimilar pattern as the water uptake (Table 1). The statistical copolymeralso produced the lowest water uptake in the series, suggesting largerincorporation of the cation should improve the conductivity.

Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) was then performed to betterunderstand the change in behavior with conductivity for the series. SAXSanalysis was carried out on as-cast dehydrated films in the Br form inpinhole geometry (see top panels of FIG. 5 ) and narrow slit, large qrange collimation modes. In both instances, the scattering patterns forthe block copolymers were in good agreement and revealed the presence ofdistinct first and second order Bragg features, indicating periodicnanoscale phase separation. As expected, the Bragg peaks were absent inthe statistical copolymer SAXS patterns (see FIG. 5 , top right panel).The most obvious trend for the multiblock series is the decrease ind-spacing with increasing number of blocks. A 65 nm spacing is observedfor the diblock copolymer which is reduced to less than 30 nm for thepentablock copolymer (FIG. 5 , top panels).

Without limitation to any mechanism, it was hypothesized that theincrease of hydroxide conductivity in the multiblock copolymers with theincrease of the number of blocks is caused by the concomitant increaseof the surface area to volume ratio of the ionic domains. Progressingfrom diblock to pentablock copolymers, the same ionic content isbecoming confined to smaller volumes during microphase separation andtherefore an increase in surface area to volume ratio affords betternetworks for ion-transport.

The statistical copolymer showed no Bragg features over the entireq-range due to the absence of periodic microphase separation (top rightpanel of FIG. 5 ). Close inspection of the high q range of thestatistical copolymer traces acquired in a slit collimation moderevealed the presence of a distinct change of slope in the approximately2 nm⁻¹ range. This feature was interpreted as the indication of theshort-range, aperiodic clustering of ionic groups. Similar clusteringhas been observed in a recent study of phosphonium-based statisticalcopolymers. Characteristic broad maxima centered approximately 5 nm⁻¹evident in all instances for slit-collimated patterns correspond to thelow q tails of amorphous halos of all copolymers.

The triblock, tetrablock and pentablock copolymers were imaged usingcryogenic transmission electron microscopy to further probe morphology(see FIG. 5 , bottom panels). The specimens were prepared usingcryo-microtomy and the use of cryogenic temperatures kept the membranestructure intact during the cutting and imaging processes. The diblockand statistical copolymers were not as amenable to sectioning. Nostaining was required as the Br⁻¹ counterion provided sufficientcontrast to map the ionic (dark regions) and insulating domains (lightregions) for the three copolymers. The images of the tetrablock andpentablock are consistent with a disordered bicontinuous morphology.Conclusions regarding the specific morphology of the triblock were moredifficult. Ordering length scales determined using fast-Fouriertransform (FFT) are relatively close to the SAXS analysis for thetetrablock (32-40 nm by TEM, 29.9 nm domains by SAXS) and pentablock(28-34 nm by TEM, 29.9 nm by SAXS). There is a slightly largerdifference in the values obtained for the triblock by TEM and SAXS(22-31 nm by TEM, 36.5 by SAXS) which could be due to the largeranisotropy of the sample.

As described above, the present synthetic methodology is modular withrespect to the cation tethered to the polymer backbone. Considering thehigh hydroxide conductivity and controllable water uptake of theammonium-functionalized polynorbornenes, other cations were appended tothe representative polymer framework described above. In that regard,resonance-stabilized tetraaminophosphonium cations were studied giventheir exceptional stability to alkaline media. The preparation of astatistical and pentablock phosphonium copolymer was accomplished usinga post-polymerization modification as described herein.

A trisaminophosphazene [N(iPr)Me]₃P═N—Me precursor was combined with thehNB/BrBuNB copolymers in dichlorobenzene for 40 h at 55° C. under N₂(see FIG. 6A). In the case of the ammonium copolymers described above,the film in the bromide form is soaked in an aqueous trimethylaminesolution. Reactions for phosphonium precursors and imidazoliumprecursors are discussed further below. In the case of a phosphoniumprecursor, a phosphazene base (an intermediate precursor) is formed viaa phase-transfer reaction. The trisaminophosphazene can be convenientlyprepared from its protonated form using a two-phase reaction (see, forexample, FIG. 6B). The phosphazene is then combined with the copolymerunder nitrogen to substitute the polymer with the desired phosphoniumcation. The resultant cationic-functionalized copolymers (statisticaland pentablock-IPrMe copolymers) were worked up using potassiumhexafluorophosphate (KPF₆) and converted into the desired chloride formusing a commercially available anion-exchange resin. Solvent castingfrom 1,2-dichloroethane produced homogeneous films.

The degree of substitution was estimated from ¹H NMR spectroscopy. TheN—Me groups bound to the phosphonium appear between δ 2.5-2.8 ppm. Thesewere compared to the CH₃ group of the hNB which appears as a broadsignal at δ 0.9 ppm. The integration of the CH₃ group of the hNBnorbornene as compared to the phosphonium signals are within 10% of thetarget value and suggest >90% conversion to the Stat-IPrMe andPentablock-IPrMe. For example, in a 2:1 hNB-co-BrBuNB, the ratio ofsignals for the N—Me groups of the phosphonium to the methyl group ofhNB should be 12:6 with a 10.5:6 ratio observed in the ¹H NMR spectrumcharacterizing the polymer.

The water uptake and conductivity measurements for these phosphoniumpolymers indicated a much larger impact of the bulkier phosphoniumcation as compared to its ammonium (NMe₃) counterpart as illustrated inFIGS. 6C and 6D. First, upon looking at the Stat-NMe₃ and the Stat-IPrMein FIG. 6C, the water uptake and hydration number are quite different.The water uptake for the Stat-IPrMe is twice that of the Stat-NMe₃ (60%as compared to 30%). The hydration number, which takes ion-exchangecapacity into account, illustrates that the phosphonium cation issolvated by nearly 3 times the number of H₂O molecules as compared tothe ammonium (28 versus 10). This is consistent for the occupied volumefor each cation. If the monomeric NMe₄Cl and [(N(iPr)Me)₄P]Cl salts arecompared and assumed to have similar densities (approximately 1.2g/cm³), at equimolar concentrations the phosphonium cation will occupyapproximately 3.2 times the volume of the ammonium cation. Consideringthis observation, the hydration number for the Stat-IPrMe, which isnearly 3 times larger than for the Stat-NMe₃, appears to be associatedwith the occupied volume of the cation. The water uptake is exacerbatedin the pentablock copolymer. The pentablock-NMe₃ has a water uptake of75%, while the pentablock-IPrMe water uptake is approximately double thewater uptake of the pentablock-NMe₃ at approximately 150%.

The conductivities of the Stat-IPrMe and Pentablock-IPrMe were alsoquite interesting as illustrated in FIG. 6D. A 15% increase inconductivity is noted for the pentablock copolymer as compared to thestatistical copolymer (63±3 and 53±5 at 80° C., respectively). Thisincrease is markedly lower than the increase observed in the ammoniumcopolymers, wherein a 40% increase in conductivity was noted from thestatistical to the pentablock copolymer. Without limitation to anymechanism, this result may be attributed to the significant water uptakeof the Pentablock-IPrMe, which may limit its potential as an AEM.Conductivity measurements for the pentablock-IPrMe were more difficultdue to the larger degree of swelling. For phosphonium-based polymers(and other polymers including relatively large volume or bulky cations),certain block copolymers may prove difficult for use in certaintechnologies as the higher hydration of such bulky cations (for example,cations having a volume in excess of 0.25 cm³/mol, such as phosphoniumcations and imidazolium cations) may result in water management issues.

FIG. 7 illustrates a representative synthetic scheme forpost-polymerization modification of the polynorbornene copolymers hereofwith an imidazolium cation. In the representative scheme of FIG. 7 , animidazole precursor is attached to the intermediate copolymer formed viavinyl addition polymerization using phase-transfer chemistry. Theimidazole is then converted into the imidazolium via a nucleophilicsubstitution.

As set forth above, a series of representativetrimethylammonium-functionalized copolymers, including statistical andmultiblock (ranging from deblock to pentablock) copolymers, weresynthesized by controlled vinyl addition polymerization andpost-polymerization functionalization. This group of polymers enabledsystematic exploration of the impact of multiblock architecture onhydroxide transport (for copolymer of a given molecular weight andcation content). The block copolymers displayed higher hydroxideconductivity that the statistical copolymer, suggesting they should bevaluable as high-performance hydroxide transporting membranes.

Additionally, the modular method of post-polymerizationfunctionalization hereof was used to append resonance-stabilizedtetraaminophosphonium cations to the statistical and pentablockcopolymers. Direct comparison with the ammonium copolymers revealedsignificantly higher water uptake with these bulky cations appended tothe polymer chain, which may be associated with a larger occupiedvolume. In the case of bulkier cations (for example, having a volume inequal to or in excess of 0.25 cm³/mol), in which water uptake will behigher, statistical copolymers may be more effective than blockcopolymers to mitigate excessive swelling in, for example,polymers/membranes hereof.

In a number of embodiments, the devices, systems, methods, andcompositions hereof thus provide a systematic process of synthesis,development, and utilization of statistical and multiblock additionpoly(norbornene)s in a number of technologies including, for example,alkaline fuel cells which has not been previously realized. The devices,systems, methods, and compositions hereof provide high performinghydroxide conductors. Furthermore, the polymers provide the distinctadvantage of being solution processible, which allows for more controlover the characterization and film forming processes. With carefulpreparation, large increases in the conductivity of a single polymer andfor a give cation may be realized by synthesis of multiblock orstatistical architectures in addition polynorbornene scaffolds.

Furthermore, the synthetic methods and representative series ofcopolymers studied herein serves as a valuable model set to understandthe impact of statistical and multiblock architecture on performance andproperties in anion-exchange membranes. The studies hereof indicatedthat in controlled vinyl addition norbornenes, phase separation can beused as a tool to enhance conductivity, particularly in the case ofrelatively low-volume cations (for example, having a volume less than0.25 cm³/mol), such as ammonium cations. Synthesized statisticaltrimethylammonium-functionalized copolymers hereof also displayedrelatively good conductivity (61 mS/cm at 80° C. ). In the case oflarger-volume cations (for example, having a volume greater than orequal to 0.25 cm³/mol) such as phosphonium and imidazolium cations,statistical polymers may outperform multiblock copolymers consideringthe design criteria of hydroxide conductivity and water uptake. Thedesign strategies for hydroxide-containing polymers hereof provide aframework for the development of a variety of polymers for robust andefficient anion exchange membranes including a variety of cationicgroups as discussed further below.

As described above, FIG. 8A illustrates representative precursors (top)which may be used in post-polymerization functionalization to yield thecorresponding cationic moieties (bottom; either directly or through oneor more intermediate compositions) tethered to addition polynorbornenebackbone of representative copolymers hereof by way of SN2 reaction.FIG. 8B illustrates an embodiment of a single-reaction-vessel or one-potsynthesis of tetrakis(dialkylamino) phosphonium cations. The novelone-pot synthesis of the phosphonium compounds may, for example, be usedto prepare precursors for the post-polymerization functionalization ofvinyl addition polyolefin/polynorbornene scaffold as described above. Ina number of embodiments, the synthetic method includes two consecutiveadditions of appropriate amines to yield tetrakis(dialkylamino)phosphonium cations. Previous syntheses of tetrakis(dialkylamino)phosphonium cations included reaction of alkyl azides with phosphorustrichloride followed by alkylation and amine substitution of phosphoruspentachloride followed by a separate alkylation step. The syntheticmethod hereof uses secondary amines rather than primary amines followedby alkylation. FIG. 8B illustrates the synthesis oftetrakis(dialkylamino) phosphonium compounds starting from substitutionof commercially available phosphorus pentachloride with threeequivalents of a secondary amine in the presence of an organic base toreact with HCl byproduct. Upon completion of reaction, monitored by PNMR spectroscopy, a second amine (primary or secondary; typicallyprimary) is added to complete conversion to the tetrakis(dialkylamino)phosphomium cation which is isolated by simple precipitation. Thesynthetic method hereof provides significant advantages over a number ofprevious methods as it is a one-pot procedure that gives both highyields (>80%) and a readily isolable crystalline material. Moreover, thepresent synthetic method is not limited to synthesis of monomericphosphonium units. With judicious choice of a diamine during the secondstep of the synthesis, dimeric phosphonium compounds become available.In general, one of the R groups on the P atom is tunable. Such a tunableR group is denoted as R; in the scheme of FIG. 6B. In a number ofembodiments, a methyl group was used, but this group could be ahigher-order linear, branched, or cyclic alkyl group as well. Dimericphosphonium compounds are, for example, of potential use in polymericsystems as crosslinking moieties that allow for an increased amount ofionic content while also mitigating the amount of swelling in theoverall crosslinked polymer system.

The tetrakis(dialkylamino) phosphonium compounds may, for example, beespecially useful for polymer functionalization in the application ofAEMFCs as they provide a robust base stable material with modesthydroxide conductivity. In stability experiments, a family oftetrakis(dialkylamino) phosphonium cations were subjected to extremelyharsh alkaline environments to analyze decay pathways. It was found thatthese compounds required the addition of phase-transfer agents toobserve significant degradation. There are numerous examples oftetrakis(dialkylamino) phosphonium cations in aqueous alkalineenvironments as small molecules and pendent to polymer backbones thatdisplay very little to no degradation behavior. As a result of thisextreme resistance to alkaline degradation these materials show verygood promise for hydroxide transport.

Experimental

Materials and Methods. Tri-tert-butylphosphine palladium (II) methylchloride was synthesized according to a literature procedure.¹Yamashita, M., Takamiya, L., Jin, K., and Nozaki, K. “Syntheses andStructures of Bulky Monophosphine-Ligated Methylpalladium Complexes:Application to Homo- and Copolymerization of Norbornene and/orMethoxycarbonylnorbornene” Organometallics, 2006, 25, 4588-4595. DOI:10.1021/om060347w; the disclosure of which is incorporated herein byreference. All polymerizations were carried out in dry, degassed CH₂Cl₂.All chemicals were purchased from commercially available sources andwere used as received.

NMR Analysis. All NMR spectra were collected at 300 K on a two-channelBruker Avance III NMR instrument equipped with a Broad Band Inverse(BBI) probe, operating at 500 MHz for ¹H and 126 MHz for ¹³C. The ¹H NMRspectra are referenced to residual protio solvents (7.26 ppm for CHCl₃).

Gel-Permeation Chromatography. GPC measurements were performed on aWaters Instrument equipped with a 717 plus autosampler, a Waters 2414refractive index (RI) detector and two SDV columns (Porosity 1000 and100000 Å; Polymer Standard Services) with THF as the eluent (flow rate 1mL/min, 40° C.). A 10-point calibration based on polystyrene standards(Polystyrene, ReadyCal Kit, Polymer Standard Services) was applied fordetermination of molecular weights.

Ion Exchange Capacity. IEC was measured using standard back titrationmethods. The thin film membrane in the Cl⁻ form was added to 100 ml of 1M NaOH in a Nalgene bottle for 24 h. The NaOH solution was quicklydecanted from the membrane and 25 ml of fresh deionized water was added.After soaking for 20 min, the solution was quickly decanted and replacedwith another fresh portion of deionized water. This process was repeateda total of three times to wash of residual NaOH. The solution wasdecanted from the membrane and subsequently replaced with 25 ml ofstandardized 0.1 N HCl solution and allowed to soak for another 24 h.The resulting acidic solution was titrated to pH 7 with standardized 0.1N NaOH using an Accumet AB15 pH meter and the volume used was recorded.Three control titrations of 25 mL of standardized 0.1 N HCl wereperformed using standardized 0.1 N NaOH and the volume used to obtainpH=7 was recorded. An average of the three titrations were used as thetrue concentration of the NaOH solution. The difference in volumebetween the control titrations and the membrane titration was used tocalculate the IEC using the following equation:

${{IEC}( \frac{mmol}{g} )} = \frac{\lbrack {( {V_{control} - V_{membrane}} ) \times ( \frac{100{mmol}{NaOH}}{1000{mL}{solution}} )} \rbrack}{{membrane}{weight}}$

A sample calculation is given below for the statistical copolymer:

-   -   mL of NaOH for membrane solution to reach pH=7: 27.4 mL.

${{IEC}( \frac{mmol}{g} )} = {\frac{\lbrack {( {{2{8.5}} - {27.4{mL}{NaOH}}} ) \times ( \frac{100{mmol}{NaOH}}{1000{mL}{NaOH}{solution}} )} \rbrack}{{0.0}64g} = {1.71\frac{{mmol}{OH}}{g}}}$

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy. Conductivity was measured byfour probe electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) using a ScribnerMembrane Conductivity Clamp and a Bio-Logic SP-150 Potentiostat. Thethin film membrane in the Cl⁻ form was cut to dimensions ofapproximately 20 mm×5 mm. The membrane thickness varied, but nearly allmeasured samples were near 0.07 mm in thickness. Membrane strips weresoaked in 50 mL of 1 M NaOH in a Nalgene bottle for 24 h at 50° C. TheNaOH solution was replaced a total of three times throughout the full 24hours to ensure complete conversion to the hydroxide form. The NaOHsolution was quickly decanted from the membrane and 50 mL of freshdeionized water was added. After soaking for 20 mins, the solution wasquickly decanted and replaced with another fresh portion of deionizedwater. This process was repeated for a total of three times. The thinfilm membrane, now in the OH⁻ form, was quickly assembled in theconductivity clamp and submerged in fresh deionized water at 20° C. thatwas degassed under N₂ for 1 hour prior to use to avoid conversion of OH⁻to carbonates. EIS was performed by applying a sinusoidal (AC) voltageof 10 mV across the membrane sample at frequencies between 800,000 Hzand 0.1 Hz (scanning from high to low frequency) and measuring thecurrent response. The Nyquist plot data was extrapolated to find thex-axis intercept, which gives the value of real impedance for themembrane sample. This value was then used to calculate hydroxideconductivity through the following formula:

$\sigma = \frac{L}{Z^{\prime}{WT}}$

Where L is the length between the electrodes (0.425 cm), Z′ is realvalue of impedance taken at the zero-point in the imaginary impedancebefore the onset of Warburg impedance. W is the membrane width, and T isthe membrane thickness as measured with a digital micrometer.

Thermal Gravimetric Analysis. TGA was performed using a Perkin ElmerPyris thermogravimetric analyzer. All experiments were carried out underN₂ atmosphere starting from 50° C. and ending at 800° C. with a rate of10° C./min. The polymer was preheated to 100° C. for 1 h before each runto drive off any existing water or solvent.

Small Angle X-ray Scattering. SAXS was performed on two separatesystems. System 1: Thin film membranes in the bromide form were mountedon a sample holder. SAXS was performed on a Ganesha SAXS-LAB (UMassAmherst) with Cu Kα 0.154 nm line on SAXS mode with pin hole beamcollimation. For each sample the exposure time was set for 30 min. Alldata collected was background subtracted from a set of reference datacollected for the same amount of time and using the same holder with nosample. System 2: Thin film membranes in the bromide form were mountedon a membrane sample holder. SAXS was performed on an Anton Parr SAXess(UPitt) Cu Kα 0.154 nm line with slit collimation. For each sample theexposure time was set for 10 min. All data collected was backgroundsubtracted from a set of reference data collected for the same amount oftime and using the same holder with no sample.

Cryogenic Transmission Electron Microscopy. Sectioning of the triblock,tetrablock and pentablock copolymers for cryo-TEM was performed usingcryo-microtomy on a Leica EM UC7/FC7 Cryo-Ultra-microtome. The sampleswere cooled to temperatures between −60 to −95° C. and cut into ˜70 nmthick sections using a diamond knife. These sections were then collectedusing copper TEM grids with lacey carbon support and stored at roomtemperature. Cryo-TEM images of the grids were taken on a Thermo FisherTalos Arctica microscope operated at an accelerating voltage of 200 keVand using a Gatan K3 direct electron detector. The microscope wasoperated at a temperature of −190° C. and in energy-filtered mode usinga 20 eV energy slit. Images for the triblock, tetrablock, and pentablockcopolymers were recorded at defocus values between −1 and −5 μm.

Synthesis of 5-hexyl-2-norbornene. The synthesis of this molecule wascarried out similar to a reported procedure by Claverie andcoworkers^(2.) Dicyclopentadiene (2.0 g. 15.1 mmol, 2.04 mL) and1-octene (6.8 g, 60.4 mmol, 9.5 mL, 4.0 equivalents) were added to a 125mL pressure vessel equipped with a magnetic stir bar. The solution washeated to 190° C. in an oil bath, for 24-48 h. The experiment wasmonitored by removing aliquots from the reaction mixture and analyzingusing ₁H NMR spectroscopy. The reaction was carried out until noresidual dicyclopentadiene was observed. The solution was cooled to roomtemperature and was connected to a vacuum distillation apparatus.Residual 1-octene was removed by distillation (oil bath temperature was60-65° C.) at ˜1-2 torr. Upon removal of the residual dienophile, theoil bath temperature was raised to 105-110° C. to distill the product(the first 1 mL was discarded). The resultant transparent oily liquidstill contained higher order Diels-Alder adducts (tetracyclododecene) socolumn chromatography on silica gel using hexanes as the eluent was usedto separate the desired product. Some co-elution of the product with thetetracyclododecene occurred, so only the initial pure fractions werecollected for use in polymerization. The solvent was removed by rotaryevaporation and the product was further dried in vacuo to give the pureproduct as a transparent oil. Yield 1.5 g. 28%. endo/exo: 87/13. ₁H NMR(500 MHz, CDCl₃) endo peaks δ ppm: 6.10 (dd, J=5.8, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 5.91(dd, J=5.7, 2.9 Hz, 1H), 2.86-2.57 (m, 2H), 1.50-1.11 (m, 12H),1.15-1.01 (m, 2H), 0.89 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), 0.49 (ddd, J=11.2, 4.4, 2.6Hz, 1H). ¹³C NMR endo peaks (126 MHZ, CDCl₃) δ ppm: 137.0, 132.7, 49.8,45.6, 42.7, 38.9, 35.0, 32.6, 32.1, 29.8, 28.9, 22.9, and 14.3.

Synthesis of 5-Bromobutyl-2-norbornene. The synthesis of this moleculewas carried out like a reported procedure by Espinet and coworkers.Martínez-Arranz, S., Albéniz, A. C., and Espinet, P. “Versatile Route toFunctionalized Vinylic Addition Polynorbornenes” Macromolecules, 2010,43 (18), 7482-7487 DOI:10.1021/ma101137z, the disclosure of which isincorporated by reference. Dicyclopentadiene (2.0 g. 15.1 mmol, 2.04 mL)and 6-bromo-1-hexene (9.86 g, 60.5 mmol, 8.08 mL, 4.0 equivalents) wereadded to a 125 mL pressure vessel equipped with a magnetic stir bar. Thesolution was heated to 190° C. in an oil bath, for 24-48 h. Theexperiment was monitored by removing aliquots from the reaction mixtureand analyzing using ¹H NMR spectroscopy. The reaction was carried outuntil no residual dicyclopentadiene was observed. The solution wascooled to room temperature and was connected to a vacuum distillationapparatus Residual 6-bromo-1-hexene was removed by distillation (oilbath temperature was 70-75° C.) at ˜1-2 torr. Upon removal of theresidual dienophile, the oil bath temperature was raised to 140-145° C.to distill the product (the first 1 mL was discarded). The resultanttransparent oily liquid still contained higher order Diels-Alder adducts(tetracyclododecene) so column chromatography on silica gel usinghexanes as the eluent was used to separate the desired product. Someco-elution of the product with the tetracyclododecene occurred, so onlythe latter pure fractions were collected for use in polymerization. Thesolvent was removed by rotary evaporation and the product was furtherdried in vacuo to give the pure product as a transparent oil. Yield 2.7g, 40%. endo/exo: 81/19 ¹H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl₃) endo peaks δ ppm: 6.11(dd, J=5.8, 3.0 Hz, 1H), 5.91 (dd, J=5.7, 2.9 Hz, 1H), 3.39 (t, J=6.9Hz, 2H), 2.83-2.70 (m, 2H), 1.97 (m, 1H), 1.90-1.74(m, 3H), 1.54-1.25(m, 3H), 1.23-1.17 (m, 1H), 1.15-1.01 (m, 2H), 0.49 (ddd,J=11.3, 4.4,2.6Hz, 1H), endo peaks ¹³C NMR (126 MHZ, CDCl₃) δ ppm: 137.2, 132.4, 49.7,45.5, 42.7, 38.8, 34.0, 33.2, 32.6, 31.8, 27.3.

General Procedure for Polymerizations. Statistical Copolymer: In a N₂glovebox, sodium tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate (0.003g. 0.0036 mmol) was added to an oven-dried 20 mL scintillation vial. DryCH₂Cl₂ (10 mL) and 1 mL of a 1 mg/mL stock solution of tri-tertbutylphosphine palladium (II) methyl chloride (0.001 g, 0.0036 mmol)were then added to the vial. The reaction mixture was stirred for 15 minto ensure formation of the active cationic palladium catalyst. Asolution of 5-hexyl-2-norbornene (0.3 g, 1.68 mmol) and5-bromobutyl-2-norbornene (0.192 g. 0.84 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (1 mL) was theninjected into the activated catalyst solution. The polymerizationreaction was stirred for 2 h, at which time an aliquot was removed forcrude analysis by ¹H NMR spectroscopy to ensure complete consumption ofthe two monomers (disappearance of the vinyl protons). The solution wasthen quenched by precipitation into a large excess of methanol to yieldan off-white stringy polymer. Yield 0.38 g, 77%, GPC (THE vs PSstandards) M_(n): 125 kg/mol, Ð: 1.17. ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ ppm: 3.4 (s, br2H, —CH ₂—Br), 2.6-0.96 (br, all other protons except for hexylnorbornene —CH₃), 0.89 (s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH ₃).

Block Copolymers: The following is the synthetic protocol for thediblock copolymer. The multiblock copolymers were synthesized in asimilar manner by sequential additions of 5-hexyl-2-norbornene and5-bromobutyl-2-norbornene. In a N₂ glovebox, sodiumtetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate (0.007 g. 0.0075 mmol)was added to an oven-dried 50 mL round-bottom flask. Dry CH₂Cl₂ (15 mL)and a 0.9 mL of a 3 mg/mL stock solution of tri-tert butylphosphinepalladium (II) methyl chloride (0.0027 g. 0.0075 mmol) were then addedto the vial. The reaction mixture was stirred for 15 min to ensureformation of the cationic palladium catalyst. A solution of5-hexyl-2-norbornene (0.62 g, 3.5 mmol) in dry CH₂Ch₂ (2 mL) was theninjected into the activated catalyst solution. The polymerization wasstirred for 1 h, at which time an aliquot was removed for crude analysisby ¹H NMR spectroscopy to ensure complete consumption of the hexylnorbornene monomer (disappearance of the vinyl protons). A solution of5-bromobutyl-2-norbornene (0.4 g, 1.74 mmol) was then injected into theactive polymer solution and was stirred for 2 h. Another aliquot wasremoved to ensure complete consumption of 5-bromobutyl-2-norbornene. Thepolymer was then quenched by precipitation into a large excess ofmethanol to yield an off-white stringy polymer. Yield 0.84 g, 82%. GPC(THF vs PS standards) Block 1 M_(n): 58 kg/mol, Ð: 1.11, Block 2 M_(n):104 kDa, Ð: 1.16. ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ ppm: 3.4 (s, br 2H, —CH ₂—Br),2.6-0.96 (br, all other protons except for hexyl norborene —CH₃), 0.88(s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH ₃).

ABA Triblock: Yield 0.86 g. 87% ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ ppm: 3.4 (s, br 2H, —CH₂—Br), 2.6-0.96 (br, all other protons except for hexyl norbornene—CH₃), 0.88 (s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH3). Block 1 M_(n): 31 kDa, Ð: 1.18, Block2 M₂: 68 kDa, Ð: 1.16, Block 3 M_(n): 100 kDa, Ð: 1.18.

ABAB Tetrablock: Yield 0.79 g, 81% ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ ppm: 3.4 (s, br 2H,—CH ₂—Br), 2.6-0.96 (br, all other protons except for hexyl norbornene—CH₃), 0.89 (s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH3). Block 1 M_(n): 29 kDa, Ð: 1.17, Block2 M_(n): 51 kDa, Ð: 1.15, Block 3 M_(n): 82 kDa, Ð: 1.16, Block 4 M_(n):118 kDa, Ð: 1.18.

ABABA Pentablock: Yield 0.75 g, 76% ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ ppm: 3.4 (s, br 2H,—CH ₂—Br), 2.6-0.96 (br, all other protons except for hexyl norbornene—CH₃), 0.88 (s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH ₃). Block 1 M_(n): 22 kDa, Ð: 1.19, Block2 M_(n): 44 kDa, Ð: 1.18, Block 3 M_(n): 68 kDa, Ð: 1.17, Block 4 M_(n):91 kDa, Ð: 1.38. Block 5 M_(n): 112 kDa, Ð: 1.38.

Solution casting to afford flexible free-standing membranes.Approximately 150 mg of polymer was dissolved in 5 mL of chloroform.Upon complete dissolution, the solution was filtered through a 0.22 μmsyringe filter onto a glass petri dish (diameter—5 cm). The chloroformevaporated over a period of 4-5 h to afford a clear film, which wasremoved from the dish by swelling with MeOH. The polymer was then driedin vacuo to remove MeOH and any other residual solvents.

Synthesis of Trimethylammonium-Functionalized Polymers. The driedpolymer films were immersed in an aqueous solution of 28% (w/v)trimethylamine for 48 h at room temperature. The films were removed andrinsed 5×50 mL portions of deionized water and 3×10 mL portions of MeOH.The films were then dried in vacuo to produce thetrimethylammonium-functionalized polymers.

TMA-Statistical: ¹H NMR (CDCl₃: MeOD 1:1) δ ppm: 3.0 (s, br 9H, TMA—CH₃), 2.5-0.76 (br, all other protons except for hexyl norborene —CH₃),0.66 (s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH ₃)

TMA-Diblock: ¹H NMR (CDCl₃: MeOD 1:1) δ ppm: 3.0 (s, br 9H, TMA —CH₃),2.5-0.76 (br, all other protons except for hexyl norbomene —CH₃), 0.66(s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH ₃) Becoming insoluble at room temperature. TMA-ABATriblock: ¹H NMR (CDCl₃: MeOD 1:1) δ ppm: 3.0 (s, br 9H, TMA —CH₃),2.50-0.76 (br, all other protons except for hexyl norbornene —CH₃), 0.65(s, br 3H, —CH₂—CH ₃).

TMA-ABAB Tetrablock: Insoluble.

TMA-ABABA Pentablock: Insoluble.

Synthesis of Tetraaminophosphonium Polymer.Tris(isopropyl-(methyl)amino)(methylamino)phosphoniumhexafluorophosphate(V) (1.00 g, 2.37 mmol) was dissolved in1,2-dichlorobenzene (10 mL) and combined with 6.6 g of 50% (w/w)KOH_(aq) in a scintillation vial. The vial was heated to 60° C. for 30min to deprotonate the N—H group and produce the neutraltrisaminophosphazene base ([N(iPr)Me]3P═N—Me). The water layer wasremoved, the organic phase was dried using Na₂SO₄, and filtered throughcelite. The clear 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution with dissolvedphosphazene was combined with the 2:1 copolymer of thehexylnorbornene-bromobutylnorbornene (400 mg, either statistical orpentablock) and placed in a heating block at 55° C. under an N₂atmosphere for 40 h. The reaction mixture was then removed from theglovebox and transferred to a separatory funnel where it was dilutedwith 50 ml of 1,2-dichloroethane and washed with a saturated KPF₆solution (3×50 mL). The organic layer was then dried with anhydroussodium sulfate, concentrated using rotary evaporation anddichlorobenzene was removed by evaporation. The polymer was thendissolved in a 1:1 solution methanol/1,2-dichloroethane solution (50%v/v) and 8 g of ion exchange resin was added. The slurry was gentlystirred for 17 h and, afterwards, the resin was removed using vacuumfiltration and the solution was concentrated using rotary evaporation.³¹P NMR can be used to monitor the disappearance of the PF₆ ⁻ anion, ifthe exchange is incomplete, resin and solvent can be re-added to productto continue the exchange process. Yield 50%. ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ ppm: 3.46(s, br 3H), 2.87 (s, br 2H), 2.71 (s, br 3H), 2.59 (s, br 9H), 2.6-0.96(br, all other protons except for hexyl norbornene —CH₃), 0.89 (s, br6H).

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)—Nyquist Plots, Samplecalculation for conductivity:

${\sigma( \frac{mS}{cm} )} = {\frac{L}{Z^{\prime}{WT}} \times 1000}$

L is the length between electrodes=0.425 cm, Z′ is the real value ofimpedance measured at the minimum of complex impedance Z″, W is theaverage width of the film=0.5 cm, and T is the average thickness of thefilm=0.0067 cm.

${\sigma( \frac{mS}{cm} )} = {{\frac{0.425{cm}}{4631{Ohms} \times 0.5{cm} \times 0.0067{cm}} \times 1000} = {27.4\frac{mS}{cm}}}$

The values set forth are an average conductivity value for three trialsconducted using the same polymer film.

The foregoing description and accompanying drawings set forth a numberof representative embodiments at the present time. Variousmodifications, additions and alternative designs will, of course, becomeapparent to those skilled in the art in light of the foregoing teachingswithout departing from the scope hereof, which is indicated by thefollowing claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changesand variations that fall within the meaning and range of equivalency ofthe claims are to be embraced within their scope.

What is claimed is:
 1. A multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornenecopolymer formed by a process comprising: performing a controlled vinyladdition polymerization in the presence of a metal catalyst of a firstnorbornene monomer substituted with a first alkyl group and at least asecond norbornene monomer substituted with a second alkyl group byadding a predetermined amount of the first norbomene monomer and apredetermined amount of the second norbornene monomer sequentially tothe reaction to form blocks of an intermediate norbornene multiblockcopolymer, the second alkyl group comprising a substituent whichundergoes a substitution reaction with a tertiary precursor of anammonium cationic group, and reacting the tertiary precursor for theammonium cationic group with the intermediate norbornene multiblockcopolymer to form the multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornenecopolymer, wherein the first alkyl group is a C1-C20 alkyl group and thesecond alkyl group is a C1-C20 alkyl group, and wherein the multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer comprises an odd number ofblocks and wherein a first block and a last block of the multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer are formed from the firstnorbornene monomer.
 2. The multiblock, ammonium-functionalizednorbornene copolymer of claim 2 wherein the substituent of the secondalkyl group is a halo atom, a mesylate group, or tosylate group.
 3. Themultiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer of claim 2wherein the first alkyl group is a C1-C12 alkyl group and the secondalkyl group is a C1-C12 alkyl group.
 4. The multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer of claim 2 wherein theintermediate norbornene multiblock copolymer has a number averagemolecular weight above the entanglement molecular weight thereof.
 5. Themultiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbomene copolymer of claim 2wherein the ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer has apolydispersity less than 1.5.
 6. The multiblock, ammonium-functionalizednorbomene copolymer of claim 2 wherein the multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer includes no crosslinks. 7.The multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbomene copolymer of claim 4wherein the multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer issolution processible.
 8. A method of synthesizing a multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer comprising: performing acontrolled vinyl addition polymerization in the presence of a metalcatalyst of a first norbornene monomer substituted with a first alkylgroup and at least a second norborene monomer substituted with a secondalkyl group by adding a predetermined amount of the first norborenemonomer and a predetermined amount of the second norbornene monomersequentially to the reaction to form blocks of an intermediatenorbornene multiblock copolymer, the second alkyl group comprising asubstituent which undergoes a substitution reaction with a tertiaryamine precursor of an ammonium cationic group, and reacting the tertiaryamine precursor for the ammonium cationic group with the intermediatenorbornene multiblock copolymer to form the multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer, wherein the first alkylgroup is a C1-C20 alkyl group and the second alkyl group is a C1-C20,and wherein the multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymercomprises an odd number of blocks and wherein a first block and a lastblock of the multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norborene copolymer areformed from the first monomer.
 9. The method of claim 8 wherein thesubstituent of the second alkyl group is a halo atom, a mesylate group,or tosylate group.
 10. The method of claim 8 wherein the first alkylgroup is a C1-C12 alkyl group and the second alkyl group is a C1-C12alkyl group.
 11. The method of claim 8 wherein the intermediatenorbornene multiblock copolymer has a number average molecular weightabove the entanglement molecular weight thereof.
 12. The method of claim11 wherein the multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymerhas a polydispersity less than 1.5.
 13. The method of claim 11 whereinthe multiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornene polymer includes nocrosslinks.
 14. The method of claim 11 wherein the multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer is solution processible.15. The method of claim 14 further comprising casting a film of themultiblock, ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer from solution.16. A membrane formed from solution casting of a multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer formed by a processcomprising: performing a controlled vinyl addition polymerization in thepresence of a metal catalyst of a first norbornene monomer substitutedwith a first alkyl group and at least a second norbornene monomersubstituted with a second alkyl group by adding a predetermined amountof the first norbornene monomer and a predetermined amount of the secondnorbornene monomer sequentially to the reaction to form blocks of anintermediate norbornene multiblock copolymer, the second alkyl groupcomprising a substituent which undergoes a substitution reaction with atertiary precursor of an ammonium cationic group, and reacting thetertiary precursor for the ammonium cationic group with the intermediatenorborene multiblock copolymer to form the multiblock,ammonium-functionalized norbornene copolymer, wherein the first alkylgroup is a C1-C20 alkyl group and the second alkyl group is a C1-C20alkyl group, and wherein the multiblock, ammonium-functionalizednorbornene copolymer comprises an odd number of blocks and wherein afirst block and a last block of the multiblock, ammonium-functionalizednorbornene copolymer are formed from the first norbornene monomer.